Michigan Renewal Bundle – Part 2

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The following course content

This Michigan License Renewal Bundle is broken down into 3 parts as per the requirement for Michigan Nurses which states: No more than 12 contact hours may be completed in a day.

This Part 2 features multiple interesting topics in one easy course, upon completion of this course, you will receive a certificate for 9 contact hours.
This part does not include the state-required topics for renewal – Part 1 contains those.

Course Outline

1. Key Concepts of Critical Thinking in Nursing
2. Effective Communication in Nursing
3. Ensuring Patient Confidentiality in Nursing
4. Nursing Documentation 101
5. Nursing Ethics

Key Concepts of Critical Thinking in Nursing

How many times did you hear the phrase “critical thinking” in your training to become a nurse? I must have heard it a thousand times, and I still don’t think I ever had a clear definition of it in my mind. What exactly is critical thinking? In this course, we will answer those questions and provide insight into how you can teach critical thinking in nursing. Also included are some self-guided exercises to practice critical thinking skills. After all this, you will be ranting about the vital importance of critical thinking, too.

What is Critical Thinking? 

Critical thinking is a term that is difficult to define because it is, by nature, somewhat subjective. The National Council for Excellence in Critical Thinking defines it as “the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action,” (4). That’s a long definition. Essentially, critical thinking is a way of thinking that allows a person to recognize important information and process it to solve problems. Let us break this down further into the key characteristics of critical thinkers.

How are “text-book smart” and “street smart” different from each other? 

Information Gathering 

There are some key characteristics of critical thinkers that appear consistently throughout the literature. The first of these attributes is information gathering (1). Critical thinkers are adept at gathering information from situations. They pay attention to details and pick up on the information that others may miss. Critical thinkers try to uncover the particulars to ensure they are well informed in their thinking and decision-making. Critical thinking is not a passive acceptance of information but rather an active collection of data. In terms of nursing, the critical thinker will place a lot of importance on their assessment. Rather than focusing simply on the tasks that need to be completed, critical thinking in nursing means staying in tune with assessment findings and changes. For example, if a patient has labs drawn, the critically thinking nurse will watch for the results of these labs to have the most up-to-date information and be alert to any changes. 

How do you incorporate “information gathering” into your routine?

Investigating 

Another important attribute of critical thinkers is their habit of investigating (1). They do not accept information at face value. They have a tendency to question information, especially that which contradicts other data. When critical thinkers see the information that doesn’t seem right or raises questions, they investigate it. This way of thinking goes together with seeking out information.  

With critical thinking in nursing, a nurse may ask themselves, “What else do I need to know? What comes next?” Rather than simply reporting one change to the physician, they think “what could this change represent? What other information would support this idea?” Continuing our example of following labs, if the nurse notices that the white blood cell count has increased, they will investigate to see why that might be. They would likely assess the patient for signs of infection, such as fever or chills.  

If you get the feeling that “something isn’t right,” what do you do next? 

Evaluation 

Critical thinkers also can evaluate the information they have gathered to create new ideas or hypotheses (1). This is the cognitive “connecting the dots” that allows critical thinkers to synthesize pieces of data into a complete picture of what is happening.  

Critical thinking in nursing doesn’t mean just collecting and reporting information; they process it and form ideas of their own. They ask questions like “how do these pieces of information fit together? Does this fit with any knowledge I already have?” Going back to our example, let’s say after the nurse notices the white blood cell count and assesses the patient, they find the patient has a fever and cloudy urine. Evaluation of this information would lead the nurse to think the patient has a urinary tract infection (UTI).  

Think of a time you diagnosed a patient’s problem. How did you come to this conclusion? 

Problem Solving 

An important aspect of critical thinking is problem solving. After gathering and evaluating information, the critical thinker tries to solve any problems that surface (1). This is a key point that separates critical thinking from merely being perceptive. Recognizing important information and problems is vital but being able to then think through and solve the problem is what makes critical thinking stand out. Looking at our example again, once the nurse has recognized symptoms consistent with a UTI they will begin formulating ideas on how to treat the problem. The first action would likely be notifying the provider of all the information gathered, the nurse’s hypothesis and a recommendation to solve the problem. You may recognize this format as being similar to Situation-Background-Assessment-Recommendation (SBAR). SBAR is a tool that is used to help guide critical thinking in nursing (1).  

Why is Critical Thinking Important? 

Now that we understand what exactly critical thinking means, let’s ask: why is it so important? You may have already formulated some ideas about how critical thinking in nursing can be helpful in practice. Critical thinking is a pattern of recognizing and reacting to the most important pieces of information. This is crucial in nursing, where we are presented with a plethora of information and expected to use the most important pieces to save lives and make people healthy. Now, let us get more specific on what areas would benefit from critical thinking in nursing.  

Patient Outcomes 

First, and maybe most important, is that critical thinking improves patient outcomes (3).  

Studies have shown that critical thinking skills in nurses are linked to lower hospital costs to patients, as well as to the facility thanks to lower in-hospital complications (3). Critical thinking by nurses also decreases the length of hospital stay (4). It has also been shown to improve outcomes and lower complications in surgical patients when the operating room nurses had a higher level of critical thinking (3). Despite these positive results and every nursing instructor ranting on the importance of critical thinking, there is a lack of research into the connection between critical thinking in nursing and patient outcomes. This is primarily because of the difficulty of assessing critical thinking skills specific to nurses and linking these skills to a measurable outcome without confounding factors (3). 

Staff Satisfaction 

You will be pleasantly surprised to learn that critical thinking in nursing leads to higher staff satisfaction! Research has found a strong correlation between critical thinking ability and perceived autonomy and job satisfaction in nurses (5). It is believed that critical thinking fosters autonomy or at least increases the sense of autonomy, which generally leads to higher job satisfaction. Critical thinking has been shown to improve confidence as well, and feeling confident in your work generally improves satisfaction as well (5). Interestingly, there has also been research that shows that critical thinking is linked to higher satisfaction with life decisions and less adverse life events (6). The idea here is that critically thinking through a decision before making it leads to less regret. So, this course will make you happier with work and help you make better life choices – you’re welcome. 

Efficiency 

Another important benefit of critical thinking is that it improves efficiency. Studies found that nurses with higher critical thinking skills work more efficiently (1). If you are thinking critically you are better able to prioritize and plan to avoid wasting time and energy. As we all know, nursing can be very demanding, and efficiency is important for tending to all our patients’ needs. Also, if the nurse manager of a unit has higher critical thinking skills, they implement changes that improve overall efficiency and morale (7). This highlights that critical thinking is important to all nursing forms and how one person practicing critical thinking can impact others. 

Healthcare Complexity 

A large reason why critical thinking has become so important is the ever-increasing complexity of healthcare. As we develop new treatments, we are always being asked to learn new processes and how to monitor patients receiving these treatments. Also, as the healthcare system improves treatments, the average patient is becoming older and has more co-morbidities (4). This adds to the complexity of each patient. Critical thinking is a great skill that aids in learning new tasks and comprehending more complicated patients. Nurses arguably have the most complex set of tasks, as we are often asked to perform some of the duties of other healthcare professions. Being adaptable to whatever changes come and taking on new responsibilities is a great benefit of critical thinking.  

Critical Thinking Education 

Now that we understand what critical thinking is and why it’s important let us discuss how critical thinking is taught. Critical thinking in nursing has become an integral part of many programs. Many healthcare institutions are looking for ways to incorporate critical thinking into their training process as well (1). Critical thinking is, however, an abstract concept and truly is a whole new way of thinking. So, how do we teach someone how to think? There are several factors that should be considered when trying to teach or learn critical thinking. 

Educator Influence 

First, educators have an important influence on the instruction of critical thinking skills. Educators that are effective at teaching critical thinking skills are open-minded, flexible, and supportive of their students (1). Showing flexibility and not firmly holding to one set way of doing things allows the students to adopt their own version of critical thinking. Role-modeling, guiding, and being knowledgeable about critical thinking also leads to a more effective educator (1). The educator should guide learners through their understanding of critical thinking while role-modeling critical thinking behaviors. 

Environment 

The learning environment also plays an important role in a nurse’s ability to learn critical thinking skills. The environment should be inclusive, non-judgmental, and allow for open discussion (1). This applies to both nursing schools and nurses being trained into a new unit. Feeling accepted on a unit allows for better learning and has a positive impact on critical thinking skills (1). It is important for nurses looking for a new work unit to find one with a welcoming, safe environment to aid in learning. On the other side, we should always strive as nurses to be inclusive and facilitate this type of environment as it benefits everyone. I was always told that “nurses eat their young,” and this attitude does not foster learning or growth. 

Education System 

The education system also impacts the teaching of critical thinking. Education systems, for one, largely shape the learning environment and educators. The education system should strive to create the type of learning environment where critical thinking skills can grow. Too much emphasis on classroom lectures and power dynamics between teachers and students hinders the development of critical thinking skills (1). Teaching critical thinking as its own subject also helps students learn the skill (1). 

Individual Factors 

Lastly, there are some individual factors that affect a person’s ability to cultivate critical thinking skills. Chief among these are a lack of confidence and fear of questioning an instructor (1). You can see how all these concepts seem to be centered on the fact that learners perform best when they are comfortable and have the freedom to discuss ideas. This is the central concept that should be understood and practiced by both mentor and mentee, as well as the education system as a whole. So, as we move into the next section teaching critical thinking skills, put yourself in a comfortable place – physically and mentally. Be sure to keep thinking of questions and follow your own ideas. 

Strategies to Promote Critical Thinking 

Now that we have an understanding of the right mindset to have when learning critical thinking, let us actually discover how to teach and learn it. Some common strategies that appear to be effective are targeted questioning, case studies and simulation (1). These are all approaches that require more than one person, so they are best practiced as part of training. If you have a colleague or mentor, you may try some of these strategies with them as well. 

Targeted Questioning 

First, we have targeted questioning, which is a tactic of asking questions in order to promote further thinking (8). This often involves asking questions of increasing difficulty to encourage the learner to think deeper about what the facts represent. It is the educator’s equivalent of a toddler asking “why?” over and over. The purpose is not to be annoying but to discover how deep down the rabbit hole the learner will go. Socratic questioning is another common type of targeted questioning designed to encourage learners to think further on the subject matter. This is commonly used in continuing education (check the italicized text), and helps to promote further thinking on facts rather than just accepting them at face value.  

Case Studies 

The next exercise that helps teach critical thinking is case studies. Case studies help promote critical thinking by allowing learners to think through a real-life scenario without the stressors of experiencing the scenario (1). 

It is important for learners to acknowledge how they might feel in that scenario so that they can be better prepared for the pragmatic aspects and the personal aspects of dealing with the presented problem (4). Case studies typically move chronologically through a scenario and often guide learners through the critical thinking behaviors of information gathering, investigating, evaluating and problem-solving. This helps build the mental framework of moving step-wise through a problem in order to find the best solution.  

Simulation 

Finally, simulation has proven to be useful in fostering critical thinking. Simulation, similar to case studies, promotes thinking through a scenario in a low-risk, low-stress environment with the added benefit of going through the physical motions involved (8). This allows the learner to physically experience the situation as well as think through the problems. This can help familiarize someone with the actual physical interventions involved so they are more comfortable when practiced in real scenarios. This is often used in life support training so that learners understand how to actually connect the defibrillator and which button to press, so there is less fumbling in the high-stress scenario where these motions are used (8).  

Critical Thinking Exercises 

We have examined ways to teach critical thinking skills to others, but what about developing critical thinking within ourselves? Luckily, there are a couple of exercises that can be practiced individually to foster critical thinking skills. This is helpful to those of us who are finished with our training and looking to better ourselves. Start with a desire to improve, as none of us are perfect. These exercises are best practiced by focusing on a specific scenario, particularly if there is a scenario that you didn’t fully grasp or that felt overwhelming.  

Concept Mapping 

The first exercise is concept mapping. Concept mapping is the practice of visually representing ideas on paper and showing connections between these ideas (2). They are often presented in either a hierarchical or web pattern with the key ideas at the top or center of the diagram, respectively. 

This helps a learner visualize their thinking process and further think about what connected and how. For example, let's think of our scenario earlier with the suspected UTI. We might see a change in vital signs as a central idea which connects us to signs of infection and then to interventions. This can help us see the progression of ideas, how they are connected, and possible other explanations. 

Reflective Writing 

Our final means of learning critical thinking in nursing is reflective writing. Reflective writing or journaling helps to identify thought patterns and promote critical thinking skills (1). Again, this is most useful for examining a specific situation. Breaking down a complex situation when you have more time to analyze it will help you learn more from that challenge. 

It may seem silly to write a journal but reflecting and processing your ideas is an important practice for growth. The act of formulating your thoughts into written words helps to make more sense of the ideas and feelings you have. You don’t have to keep a daily journal, but if you have a challenging shift it may help to reflect on it and write down your ideas. It is important to treat this exercise as a learning opportunity, and to not ruminate on failures or beat yourself up for not being perfect. 

Conclusion 

In summary, critical thinking in nursing is essential. It impacts our efficiency, the well-being of our patients, and our own happiness. Critical thinking is a broad way of thinking that involves gathering information, investigating, and evaluating the information in order to solve a problem. Critical thinking is best learned and practiced with an open mind. We can foster critical thinking in each other through case studies, simulations and targeted questioning. We can improve our critical thinking in nursing skills ourselves by practicing reflective writing and concept mapping. If you are a nurse educator or preceptor, I hope you have found something you can use to shape future nurses. If you are a nurse looking to better understand critical thinking, I hope you have learned something you can take to your nursing practice.  

Effective Communication in Nursing

Introduction   

Communication in nursing is key, and the ability to communicate effectively can be our lifeline. We depend on ourself and others to be fluent and effective in the art of communication in order to perform our role as nurses successfully. When any link in our communication chain fails, we immediately see poor outcomes, wastage of resources, reductions in patient and staff satisfaction as well as a decline in the quality of patient care (1). 

Types of Communication

In order to master effective communication in nursing, it is important to understand the various types of communication, their definitions and the impact they can make.

Non-Verbal

This form of communication relies solely on body language, including body and facial mannerisms, and lacks spoken words or sounds (2, 3). We perform and identify non-verbal communication in nursing daily without giving it a second thought. We may see a newborn sucking on their hands, providing us a non-verbal cue that they are hungry. When assessing a patient holding their abdomen, we would initially target that area because they have communicated (non-verbally) that this is where they are experiencing discomfort. Smiling when the next shift nurse walks in the door communicates to them that you are happy to see them and that it's about time to go home!

Since we perform non-verbal communication so often, it can become a potent or extremely damaging tool. This form of communication in nursing can be used positively to show our patients and co-workers that we have compassion and are engaged. Negative forms can make patients uncomfortable with sharing their medical history and result in a lower quality of patient care. Additionally, it can lead to dysfunctional teamwork among staff (2).

Verbal

Verbal communication occurs when we use words or sounds to discuss concepts with others (2). This form of communication in nursing has the conception to be a very easy notion, but it can create unfavorable consequences when used ineffectively. In order to produce clear verbal messages, we should always speak concisely and confidently. As healthcare professionals, we have our language and understanding of when to incorporate medical jargon into conversations versus when not, which is crucial in providing care (4). When communicating among co-workers, our medical knowledge can display professionalism, and they can follow along. However, when speaking with patients and their families, this may only sometimes be the case, and we must be able to effectively gauge our audience and ensure that they clearly understand what we are teaching or explaining; this is a precious tool.

Written

This form of communication can be either a formal or informal transcription of words intended to serve as a direct communication form (2). Written communication in nursing is used daily and incorporates one of our most essential duties: documentation. Throughout our nursing practice, we have learned the importance and necessity of our documentation; it can be helpful for legal protection or provide critical data to other healthcare professionals. Written communication can also be accessed through our policies and procedures to perform various tasks. Having sound, written communication and interpretation skills is vital to the overall success of our nursing career.

Receiving Communication 

The most common communication perception is usually directed at producing communication through non-verbal, verbal, or written forms. While the production of communication is essential, the reception of it holds even greater value. In nursing, ensuring our communication is received correctly affects every clinical, orientation, or job experience we have encountered thus far. Think about it...

• I was taking notes in class or during a shift.
• When a preceptor or instructor educates you on a new skill or equipment.
• You teach your patient, family, or student about a new diagnosis.
• You are watching your patient breathe for rate, depth, and effort.

We must successfully provide and receive communication in nursing through verbal, non-verbal, or written forms. If communication fails, we will experience highly adverse effects throughout our nursing system (2).

Hearing & Listening

Hearing describes the process or act of perceiving sounds or spoken words (2). We hear sounds upon auscultation, varying frequencies of alarms, and patient concerns when voiced. Hearing all these sounds is heavily dependent on how they are used. We must also listen to these sounds and words to successfully implement these sounds. To listen, we must hear and then interpret these sounds carefully (2). We interpret these sounds and words by asking additional questions, performing additional assessments, or paraphrasing the information presented.

Active listening is when the listener understands the information discussed and provides feedback (5). Ways to ensure active listening are having the patient repeat the information in their own words and paraphrasing it. Active listening patients may also ask questions relevant to the topic discussed. Some additional tips to ensure active listening and participation are providing the environment is free from distractions or biases, making eye contact, and allowing the speaker to fully respond before interrupting (5).

Communication Transmission Threads

Communication in nursing occurs multiple times a day between a wide range of communication threads. The type of communication through non-verbal, verbal, and written communication produced and received must be effectively performed (4). Success and implementation depend heavily on the communication between the nurse and the communication thread.

Nurse - Nurse

Communication among nurses is continuous throughout a shift while working within a team environment. Whether we pass our documentation on to another nurse for review or vice versa, there is a consistent, communicative flow of all variants (non-verbal, verbal, and written) between the team to provide patient care. Another way to effectively communicate patient information is to use a structured communication framework, such as the situation, background, assessment, and recommendation (SBAR) format.

Nurse - Ancillary Staff

Your team members will vary depending on your nursing career setting, but some items will remain consistently critical wherever you are. We must communicate clearly when delegating or reporting essential information from the nurse to ancillary staff participating in patient, client, or resident care.

Charge Nurse - Team

There will always be unexpected tasks, staff conflicts, or emergent situations when stepping into a charge nurse role. In this position, you will be putting all the communication skills you have acquired into practice at an all-time high. As the charge nurse, you will be viewed as a leader, meaning you are a role model for your team members. Now, in addition to effectively producing and receiving communication, you will identify poor communication and assist with its correction.

Nurse - Patient

The nurse-to-patient communication thread is one of the ultimate and most essential exchanges in the nursing profession (4). Patients need us, so we must maintain consistent and effective communication with them because any assessment, report, or medication administration is contingent upon it. Additionally, bedside patient reports during shift change are valuable to ensure effective nurse-patient communication.

Nurse - Family

The thread between the nurse and the patient’s family can be the foundation for your nurse-to-patient communication and its effectiveness. The family could be the responsible party or guardian for your patient. It could serve as your sole historian for patient information if the patient cannot communicate at the time of data collection. Ensuring that the family is aware of and understands discharge instructions can help them recognize any potential signs or symptoms that could result in calling a physician or visiting the emergency room.

Barriers & Improvements to Communication in Nursing

Barriers to communication in nursing happen frequently and are sometimes out of our control. These barriers include:

Environmental-related barriers

When providing patient education, the surrounding environment can negatively impact effective communication. Alarms, noisy surroundings, lack of privacy, and lighting can all be distractions when fostering a positive learning environment (6). As nurses, we must try to teach patients in an optimal environment conducive to listening and learning as much as possible.

Cultural differences

Identifying cultural differences during admission and cultural awareness will allow effective communication management throughout each culture you are presented with (6). Nurses must acknowledge their personal and cultural beliefs and differences. Additionally, they should respect patients’ cultural differences and refrain from judgment.

Healthcare Institutional BarriersPatient acuity, low staffing levels, and time constraints can contribute to communication barriers (6). Nurses can improve these barriers by utilizing staff huddles and working with the administration to overcome high-acuity patient assignments and some time constraints. Nurses may utilize a patient-centered approach and prioritize patient communication over routine tasks to improve communication.

Emergent situations

Emergent situations during your shift can be relieved through adequate knowledge of the policies and procedures and by performing debriefs after the problem is resolved. Debriefings hold valuable insight into reflections on the emergent situations we face as nurses, especially on communication performance.

In each thread and form of communication in nursing, we must remember the following items to receive information. While producing communication, we must always be clear, concise, and accurate with the correct corresponding tone when expressed to others. When we receive information, we must ensure we understand, investigate, and act according to the communication presented. Utilizing various communication platforms, including emails, boards, and group messaging apps, can help to ensure education is received.

Benefits of Effective Communication in Nursing 

When we achieve effective and therapeutic communication between both our team and patients, it will create opportunities for enhancements throughout our practice. Fostering a unity of teamwork with co-workers will increase satisfaction and reduce burnout rates. Reduced health care costs through reduced readmissions or emergency room visits will be established by successful patient education and understanding. Our quality of patient care will be heavily influenced by the nursing communication threads created through their care.

Ensuring Patient Confidentiality in Nursing

Introduction

In order to provide the best care possible to patients, there must be a foundation of trust that the patient-provider relationship is built on. If the foundation is not stable, the rest of the relationship is at risk of crumbling. One way that trust is built is by maintaining patient confidentiality or privacy.  

When it comes to the medical field, the wrong medicines or treatments may be administered or performed. This could result in further complications. Medical conditions, treatments, and results can often be sensitive topics and things patients do not necessarily want shared with society for a variety of reasons. Patients rely on their providers to keep the information they communicate in confidence, and only sharing it under certain circumstances.  

With the ever-growing platform of social media and advancements in technology, there is a grey area that exists when it comes to patient confidentiality and what can and cannot be shared. The purpose of this course is to educate on the aspects of patient confidentiality and its importance.  

The Privacy Rule 

The Health Information Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA) became the groundwork for the Standards for Privacy of Individually Identifiable Health Information (Privacy Rule) issued by the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). It was designed to meet the requirements set by HIPAA regarding how healthcare providers used and disclosed a patient's private health information. It also addressed patients having the right to know and dictate how their health information is utilized. Overall, the Privacy Rule's goal was to set clear boundaries when it came to properly protecting health care information while allowing the exchange of pertinent information to protect the health and well-being of the public (2). 

Many groups are included under HIPAA's term of "covered entities.” These entities have connections to personal health care information on a variety of levels. Groups such as healthcare providers, health plans, healthcare clearinghouses, and business associates are all covered entities. The protected information they encounter is anything that can or is believed to identify an individual: name, date of birth, address, and Social Security Number. Any past, present, or futured mental or physical health, condition, or payment and health care provisions for an individual are also classified as protected information (4). 

De-Identifying Patients to Ensure Patient Confidentiality

There are many steps involved in de-identifying a patient for those who use or share patient information, as it applies to HIPAA. De-identifying a patient is the act of removing as many identifiers as one can in order to eliminate the chances of an individual being recognized through the scenario or situation (3).  

There are two methods to de-identifying:  

1. Formal evaluation by a qualified expert.

A qualified expert must be a person with significant knowledge and experience with knowing scientific and statistical standards or methods to ensure patient information is not identifiable. They do this by determining if the risk of using the information is very small. They often document what methods they use to make the determination (3).  

2. The act of removing individual identifiers.

Many of these identifiers are things one would expect to be removed when identifying a patient, such as a name, age, date of birth, home address, Social Security Number, full-face photos, and phone numbers. However, some of them include any form of vehicle identifier—serial or license plate numbers—internet protocol (IP) addresses, biometric identifiers like finger or voice-prints, serial numbers or device identifiers, and web universal resource locators (URLs). An entire list of the 18 identifiers is located on the Department of Health and Human Services website (3).   

Neither of these methods are 100% perfect in their goal, but they decrease a patient's chance of being identified significantly. Once the patient has been de-identified, the information is no longer restricted by the Privacy Rule since all patient identifiers have been removed. This means that the information can be used without worry of violation (3). 

Professional Statements  

Over the years, professional medical organizations have released statements regarding patient confidentiality and how it pertains to their target audience. Many medical organizations such as the American Nurses Association (ANA) and the American Medical Associations (AMA) often create position statements to reflect the organization's overall stance and thoughts on a specific topic. These positions may be used to guide education, policies, or individual opinions on the topic.  

The ANA released a statement regarding patient privacy and confidentiality. As mentioned before, the ANA believes that the patient-provider relationship is important, and confidentiality is essential in that relationship. The organization supports legislation, standards, and policies that protect patient information. In the professional statement document, the ANA goes on to give recommendations regarding the protection of patient information. These recommendations support the patient's right to have protected information and to select who is the recipient of medical information. They encourage that patients be given information regarding HIPAA and the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act—an act passed in 2008 to prohibit individuals' discrimination based on genetic information (5). They acknowledge that the patient has the right to access their information and use it to make healthcare decisions. They note that patients should be notified when and how their information may be used. There is a heavy emphasis on not using patient information if consent has not been given unless there is an extenuating circumstance regarding legal requirements. This will be discussed in the next section (1).  

Since patient confidentiality is extremely important, the ANA supports healthcare organizations in creating safeguards to protect patient confidentiality. They also support organizations enforcing ways to alleviate violations done by health care workers and protect them from retaliation (1).   

Disclosure  

Overall, patient information is discouraged from being shared; however, there are several instances where the sharing of information is allowed. The patient may give the provider(s) or healthcare organization permission to share the information with whoever the patient decides. By providing consent, the patient is essentially waving the right to keep that information confidential but determines who can receive the information. This can be done through written or verbal consent, though most facilities require a written one. This written form is placed in the patient's medical records (6).  

If another healthcare agency or provider is going to be involved with the patient's care, medical information can be exchanged on a "need to know" basis. For example, if a patient is being transferred to another facility, the accepting nurse and care team would need a thorough report to ensure that they knew the patient and what had already been done for them regarding medical care (6).  

While protecting patient information is important, there are a few circumstances—called extenuating circumstances—that allow healthcare providers to share information regarding a patient without permission outside of the above reasons. Certain information is required to be reported to public health departments or authoritative organizations: communicable diseases, suspected child or elder abuse, gunshot wounds, release to insurance companies for payment, or worker's compensation boards after a claim has been submitted are allowed (6).  

In the case of protecting the public, healthcare providers can report patient information to a specific organization if it comes down to the health of the public. As mentioned above, testing positive for communicable diseases can be reported to public health departments 

It should be noted that one important exception applies to this rule. Making assumptions, especially about if a spouse has the right to know the medical history of a patient just because they are married, is not advised. Patients should be encouraged to inform their spouse about the information that may put the spouse at risk, such as sexually transmitted infections. If the individual's direct safety is threatened, then the provider can tell them (6).  

In order to protect society, healthcare providers have the duty to warn if they have detailed and documented proof that the patient is targeting a select individual or group. Providers are encouraged to document instances of threats, whether it be against them, another provider, or another individual outside of the healthcare setting. Often this is a legal or ethical duty to report the threat to the authorities or possibly warn the potential victim (6).  

If a provider is concerned about what can or cannot be disclosed at any time, it is encouraged that the provider consults hospital policies before releasing any information (6).  

Consequences of Disclosure Violations 

Healthcare providers may be subjected to a variety of consequences when it comes to the violation of HIPAA or the Privacy Rule. The healthcare provider and the facility in which they work may be subjected to civil suits in a variety of ways. Disclosing sensitive information or photos about the patient are a breach of legal duty—intentional or unintentional—are both forms of civil suits that can occur. Nurses may face disciplinary action from their state's board of nursing. With the ever-growing form of social media, boards of nursing have been cracking down on improper use of social media and breaches in patient confidentiality. Job loss and fines are other consequences that may occur by themselves or in addition to any of the others listed above (6).  

Patient Confidentiality in the Technology Era 

There are many forms of technology today and there are many ways patient confidentiality can be violated by using it. Cell phones have become a staple in nearly everyone's day-to-day life, so it would make sense that both healthcare providers and patients alike have them. While they are useful, cell phones can also cause problems. Unintentional or intentional filming or recording of patients or medical information can happen by staff, family members, or other patients. Family members or friends may call to ask about a patient, and it is important for the nurse to know hospital policy when it comes to verifying the identity of those calling and what information can be given over the phone. Verifying with the patient who can be told what information is important as well (6). 

Since charting has become electronic, many nurses are using computers, laptops, or tablets to complete their charting. Healthcare providers need to ensure that privacy is always maintained when utilizing these devices.  

Even though most things can be transferred via email, call, or secured text message, some information still needs to be transmitted via fax machine. Since there is room for human error, coversheets should be used along with a clear identifier that the information being sent is confidential. If a number is used often, it is encouraged that it is preprogrammed into the fax machine to help decrease the chance of the number being mistyped (6).  

Best Practices of Patient Confidentiality 

Overall, healthcare providers must make decisions on how to protect private information. Despite recommendations from professional organizations and policies from facilities, it is the provider's responsibility and decision on how to go about it. Sometimes there are several ways to solve the same problem. Best practices, like the ones listed below, can be used with hospital and Board of Nursing policies and rules (6). 

• Utilize coversheets for person notes regarding patient care or when faxing sensitive information. 
• Be mindful of what is said in semi-private rooms or rooms that have visitors. Curtains and walls are not soundproof. 
• Verify callers before providing any patient information as determined by hospital policy. Remember to also verify with the patient if able to do so. Some patients may not want family or friends to know about their condition. 
• Do not leave patient information in a place where it can be easily seen by others. This includes personal notes, electronic or printed medical records, unlocked communication devices, etc. 
• Ensure that all patient information is properly disposed of or destroyed prior to leaving work. 
• Be mindful of what is posted on social media and be aware of possible unintentional disclosure.  
• Provide education to staff regarding potential areas of misuse when it comes to patient information. Policies regarding improper use should be implemented. These policies should include email use, personal electronic data devices, and electronic transmission of data.
• Have staff and others who may need access to patient information such as students sign confidentiality agreements.  
• Refrain from speaking about patients or their private information in areas where information can be overheard, such as cafeterias, hallways, elevators, waiting rooms.  
• Ensure that policies are reviewed and updated periodically or as needed to reflect current healthcare laws and guidelines.  

This is not a comprehensive list, and healthcare providers must use common sense and caution when sharing private patient information. 

Summary  

The topic of patient confidentiality is very important to the patient-provider relationship. Without it, the entire relationship can deteriorate, leading to significant emotional and possibly physical damage. This can be detrimental to the patient and provider. It is important to follow hospital policy and healthcare laws regarding sensitive information. All healthcare providers are strongly encouraged to stay up to date on new legislation that may affect patient confidentiality.  

Nursing Documentation 101

Nursing documentation is at best a useful tool for communication and at worst a necessary evil. It is well-known that documenting is one of the most tedious aspects of bedside nursing. It takes time away from patient care and may be used for (or against) you in court. In this CE module we will learn how to document properly. Proper documentation is an essential for defense against claims and continuity/quality of care in nursing.

Introduction to Nursing Documentation

“I just love charting,” said no nurse, ever. If you ask most people why they want a career in healthcare, their response is that they want to help people. They did not want to spend hours in front of a computer clicking boxes. This time-consuming task of documenting in the medical record, or charting, is dull, repetitive, and sometimes disconcerting. It takes time away from being able to provide care for the patient. Yet documentation in the medical record is truly a vital part of patient care.

Nursing documentation fills a significant portion of the medical record. Nurses need make sure what they are adding is accurate and complies with the guidelines set by their facility and the state board. This principle is the same, even though there are differences to be aware of now that the electronic medical record has become the standard.

The Who, What, When, Where, Why, and How of Nursing Documentation

Who

There are approximately 2.9 million working RNs in the United states, with about 1.6 million working in hospitals (1). Nurses on a med-surg unit typically spend about one-third of their total working hours documenting (2). Considering a nurse on a med-surg floor spends about 2.5 hours per shift charting, that roughly translates into 7 billion hours spent charting nursing documentation each year. And that is only for the nurses!

Every discipline of the healthcare team contributes to the patient’s medical record. These different clinicians may not have the opportunity to report off to one another, and they must refer to the medical record to gather the information they need in order to care for the patient. Even kitchen staff responsible for preparing meals for patients must be able to see the dietary order for the patient. The following are a few examples of the clinicians who contribute to or review the patient’s medical record:

• Medical Team: physicians, nurse practitioners, physician assistants, surgeons, specialists, residents
• Nurses and LPNs
• Medical Assistants, CNAs, patient care assistants or technicians
• Specialty technicians: radiology, anesthesia
• Therapists: physical, speech, occupational, respiratory
• Pharmacists
• Dieticians
• Case managers or social workers
• Coding and billing specialists
• Researchers

What

The primary purpose of the medical record is to communicate data about the patient and care provided between different members of the healthcare team. The bulk of the medical record is a collection of assessment data obtained from the patient. Details concerning assessments and results from lab tests or radiology comprise a large portion of the data. Assessment data is usually collected on a flow sheet system. Progress notes are written by the medical team or therapists and help to guide the intended plan of care for the patient. This is considered narrative charting. The medical record also includes orders for prescribed medications and treatments from the medical team. The following are typical components found in a patient’s medical record.

• Patient demographics: name, age, gender, contact information, language, and insurance information
• Past medical history: surgeries, chronic conditions, family history, allergies, and home prescriptions
• History and Physical (H&P): this can contain information about admitting diagnosis or chief complaint and narrative of the story leading to admission
• Flowsheet of assessment data: vital signs, head-to-toe assessment, intake and output record
• Laboratory test results
• Diagnostic test results: from radiology or procedures
• Clinical notes: progress notes from the medical team, procedure notes, notes from consulting clinicians, education provided, and discharge planning
• Treatment orders
• Medication Administration Record (MAR)

When

The medical record should document every interaction the patient had with a member of the healthcare team. An encounter is created upon admission and everything occurring during a particular admission becomes part of the medical record. Phone calls made to patients and/or families may also become a part of the medical record.

Where

Medical records are stored in various ways depending on their format and the facility. Paper records from small outpatient offices may be kept onsite. Records are now largely kept electronically. This is referred to as the electronic medical record (EMR) or electronic health record (EHR) and consists of Protected Health Information (PHI). They will be stored on a secure server, typically only accessible by authorized personnel.

Why

The medical record is essential to nursing documentation for several reasons. The primary reason for the medical record is that it allows members of the healthcare team the ability to review and analyze data in order to deliver appropriate care. It allows clinicians to keep track of all the care that has already been completed for the patient. It also provides the patient with a record of the treatment they received for as part of their lifetime medical history. The medical record is used for coding and creating a bill for the services the patient received. Medical records may also be used for reviewing processes and research purposes. Ultimately, it is also a legal document and may be used in a court of law as applicable.

How

Medical records are in the final stages of evolution from a paper chart to an electronic medical record system (EMR). By 2017, 96% of acute care hospitals and over 80% of physician offices possessed certified health IT (3). This migration of medical records from paper to electronic format was made possible with advances in technology in the last 30 years. The EMR allows members of the healthcare team to access the medical record instantaneously and improves continuity of care. Utilization of the EMR ultimately reduces costs in healthcare (4) and increases efficiency.

While EMR does have some drawbacks, the benefits that it provides are substantial enough that the government has encouraged its adaptation. The Health Information Technology for Economic and Clinical Health (HITECH) Act was enacted in 2009. This program provided tens of billions of dollars in financial incentives for healthcare facilities to adopt an EMR system (5,6).

Privacy and Security in Nursing Documentation

Since 1996, HIPAA, The Healthcare Information Portability and Accountability Act, has been the governing legislation that provides for the privacy protection of medical records. Compliance with HIPAA mandates that anyone who interacts with patients receives training that will ensure that they will maintain privacy for the patient. Part of the HIPAA legislation also allows the patient to request their medical records.

The patient also has the right to request to amend their medical record. Patient permission must be given prior to a third party’s access to their medical record (7). HIPAA legislation was introduced at the advent of EMR technology. A provision of HIPAA provided a framework to ensure privacy of electronic health records (8). However, breaches in security by hackers or cyberterrorists remains a potential threat.

Benefits of the EMR

• Immediate data accessibility and communication of patient status
  1. Clinicians can view records remotely, analyze the findings, and place orders immediately for faster patient treatment.
  2. Multiple clinicians can view the chart at one time.
  3. Records can be viewed easily from previous admissions and/or outpatients visits easily.
  4. Records can be instantly shared between facilities (in instances of shared systems).
• Reduction in errors
  1. Errors due to misinterpretation of handwriting in nursing documentation are eliminated.
  2. Allows for increased safety checks. The EMR can be set to flag missing components of information, tasks that were not yet completed or are overdue, recognize duplicates, and present warnings if documentation has not yet been validated or “signed.”
  3. Scanning medications is possible with EMR systems to reduce the risk of medication administration errors.
• Assists with appropriate billing by capturing charges of services provided to the patient.
• The EMR can provide reminders for necessity of certain preventative health screenings or vaccines.
• Automatic “signature” of data is completed simply by the user logging in with a unique ID and password. All entries are date and time stamped. If a correction is made, the original data can be accessed.
• Accessing patient EMR is tracked and can be audited to protect patient privacy from unnecessary viewing.

Downsides of the EMR

It is expensive to convert records system to an electronic system:

1. The initial cost of the EMR software is very expensive
2. More work hours must be paid for staff training and coverage of patients during initial implementation of the program
3. Maintaining appropriate encryption and cybersecurity technology against viruses and hacking are also a costly component

Computer systems can be temporarily inaccessible, for example when updates and reboots are required. Paper charting is still necessary in the interim.

Template charting has limitations (9). Templates for nursing documentation may not exist for a specific problem and does not accurately reflect the patient’s condition. Atypical patients may have multiple problems or extensive interventions that must be documented in detail.

Templates may also encourage cloned or copied documentation. It creates unnecessary redundancy and at times inaccurate information in the EHR. Some EHR systems are designed to facilitate cloning with such popular features as:

• “Make me the author” to assume the content of another person’s entry
• “Demo recall” of “Duplicate Results” to copy forward vital signs or assessment data
• “Smart phrases” pulls in specific identical data elements

Automated insertion of previous or outdated information through EHR tools, when not modified to be patient-specific and pertinent to the visit, may raise significant quality of care and compliance concerns.

The Legal Requirements

If it wasn’t documented, it wasn’t done. Every healthcare practitioner has had this mantra ingrained in them from the very beginning of their career. Nurses are trained to document defensively, that is, if they are taught at all.

In a 2014 study, only 20% of new graduate nurses had received electronic medical record training as a part of their nursing school curriculum (6). It is not uncommon for clinicians to have the tendency to view the medical record as a defense tool against potential legal problems, rather than its more significant role as a communication tool for patient care.

Regardless, accurate and complete documentation is essential. Your career, and more importantly, patient care, depends on it.

When Nursing Documentation Becomes Your Defense

In the dreaded event of a legal problem, medical records will be scrutinized to every detail. It is usually the primary source of evidence for the case. A malpractice lawsuit requires four elements to be proven (10):

• That a medical professional assumed a duty to provide care for the patient.
• The clinician failed to provide appropriate care within their scope of practice for the patient.
• The failure in appropriate care caused an injury to the patient.
• The injury resulted in damage to the patient.

Potential legal problems that may arise include the following (11):

• Administrative liability – Professional licensure discipline and/or discharge (firing) from position.
• Civil Liability – Malpractice lawsuit, failure to provide necessary care.
• Criminal liability – Misdemeanor or felony charges for cases of gross negligence.

The Cost

Fortunately, medical malpractice claims have begun to drop since 2001. In 2004, the medical practitioners involved who were known as the defendants won the case 83% of the time. The legal fees can still amount to $18,000 if the case is dropped, to as much as $93,000 even when the case is won (12,13).

In 2018, there were 8,718 malpractice cases that resulted in payments to injured patients (14). Of those events, 310 reports of malpractice suits that resulted in payments related to nursing care.

However, 180 of those, about 60% of those had payments to the injured patient that were over $50,000 (14). However, there were nearly 15,000 adverse action reports filed against nurses, which was more than the number combined filed against physicians, NPs, and PAs combined.

The majority of medical malpractice cases primarily target the physician and the facility. However, anyone who made an entry into the patient’s medical record may be required to participate in legal proceedings.

Most common malpractice claims against nurses include failure to (15):

• Follow standards of care

1. Follow safety protocols
2. Perform procedures according to guidelines
3. Use equipment properly

Use or operate equipment within the manufacture’s details

• Failure to correctly document
  1. Communication with the provider
  2. The care you completed
• Follow assess and monitor
  1. Report a change in status of the physician
  2. Assess a patient with change in status
• Communicate pertinent data
  1. Provide appropriate discharge education and information
  2. Communicate properly and completely between shifts

What is Required for Nursing Documentation?

Necessary medical record nursing documentation can vary significantly depending on the care area. For example, the documentation a circulating nurse in the operating room completes will be very different from what is documented on an emergency room patient. While the basic principles of documentation stay constant, the nurse needs to be familiar with the documentation requirements for that area based on requirements of the state board of nursing, the facility, and the unit.

There are standard requirements for medical record documentation that are applicable in all patient care settings, and in both paper and EMR systems. These standards include the following (16):

• Accurate: Clinicians must be careful to proofread documentation to make sure it is free from errors. A small typo can have serious repercussions, as it is more likely to be misinterpreted by others.
• Relevant, concise, organized and complete: It is important to keep the information concise and relevant so that other care providers can quickly find the pertinent information that they need. Assessment data should be entered in a systematic way. Complete documentation ensures all of the unit policies for documentation are addressed.
• Free of bias: Clinicians should only include information that is pertinent to the care of the patient and remain free from personal bias. Direct quotations within the proper context should be utilized with proper context.
• Factual: Clinicians should not exaggerate or minimize findings. Charting is to be completed after completing a task, not before. Do not speculate data. Observations need to include exact times and measurements. Avoid approximations. Make sure to chart on the correct patient.
• Timely: What occurred during the shift should be documented during the shift. Documentation should be done as soon as possible after completing tasks. If something needs to be added in after the shift was completed, it should be denoted as a late entry with a reason as to why. Your facility likely has strict requirements regarding late entries.
• Legible/decipherable and clearly written: Paper documentation must be clearly legible. Writing must clearly convey meaning.
• Standardized: Clinicians must use appropriate medical terminology and approved acronyms and abbreviations.
• Labeled and Auditable: Paper documentation must be signed with credentials and must include date and time of the entry. When charting in the EMR, all entries and corrections are recorded and time stamped. Password sharing or having another clinician assist in documenting under incorrect username is fraudulent.

Examples of Effective and Ineffective Charting

The following will show some examples of these principles in action. These are based on the scenario of a patient admitted in the Emergency Department for chest pain.

Common Documentation Errors

• Falsification of a record. This can happen when charting an action isn't completed in a timely manner, or from charting information before that action was completed.
• Fraudulent charting is the act of knowingly making a false record. Criminal charges of forgery can result if the misrepresentation is done for personal gain. An example of this would be a nurse documenting at administration of a controlled substance but instead was diverting the medication.
• Inappropriate use of cloning features. Information “copied and pasted” from a different patient’s record or that is completed by another provider. Data copied from previous shift assessments that isn’t updated to reflect current status is also a false record (9).
• Fail to document communication. Notification of the medical team of a change in patient status or critical lab values should always be included. Clarification or confirmation of orders should also be documented (17). Include notification of other providers who assisted with patient are. This includes failure to document transfer of care to another nurse.
• Failing to document a reason why something isn’t done. If a patient doesn’t receive a prescribed medication, the reason why the medication isn’t given needs to be described. If you communicate with the provider, this should also be included.

Conclusion

Including all of the necessary information into each patient’s medical record can be a daunting task. The nurse must make sure that they have included all of the relevant and accurate information that is required by their facility guidelines. It must usually be done in a loud environment and is frequently interrupted by actually having to provide care to the patients.

It is not only a tedious chore, but it also tends to cause a lot of apprehension. There is usually a worry of “did I chart enough?” or “did I chart everything I needed to?” This is due to the defensive practices and attitudes healthcare workers have adapted to protect against malpractice lawsuits. In this way, charting is similar to paying taxes. No one likes it, but it still has to be done.

Perhaps a way to develop a healthy perspective toward charting is to change the focus to its original purpose: to communicate care about the patient. The purpose of charting is to relay to the other healthcare team members what is going on with the patient. With this objective in mind, the nurse will inevitably cover all the necessary details and it may also be a bit more satisfying to know that even though they are in front of the computer, they are performing and completing important information for the patient. 

Nursing Ethics

Introduction   

Ethics are an important aspect of all professions, but in this case, we are going to touch on its role in nursing. From the beginning, Florence Nightingale was a strong advocate and initiated nursing ethics and morals. For the 19th consecutive year, nursing has been ranked number one by the Gallup Poll as the most honest and ethical profession (1). The designation creates a larger responsibility to understand the American Nurses Association (ANA) Code of Ethics and how to apply them to practice. Daily, nurses face ethical challenges and are confronted with situations with competing values and interests (2). How do we identify the issues? How do we respond to them? To understand our responsibilities as nurses, one must be aware of the details and applications of the ANA Code of Ethics with Interpretive Statements that give voice to nursing’s social mandate (3). 

History 

Did nursing exist before Nightingale?  Yes, but not in an organized fashion, as the formalization of an ethical model began in the mid-1800s with Nightingale. Prior to the development of a formal training program, nursing was thought to be disreputable, and many persons providing care-giving services were sex workers. Nightingale was the first to instill morals and ethics into education and practice. In 1889, the Trained Nurse and Hospital Review journal was published, including a six-part series on ethics (3).   

Following, in 1893, the Nightingale Pledge was written by Listra Gretter to be used at the Farrand Training School for Nurses in Detroit, Michigan (4). The Pledge is as follows:  

"I solemnly pledge myself before God and in the presence of this assembly, to pass my life in purity and to practice my profession faithfully. I will abstain from whatever is deleterious and mischievous and will not take or knowingly administer any harmful drug. I will do all in my power to maintain and elevate the standard of my profession and will hold in confidence all personal matters committed to my keeping and all family affairs coming to my knowledge in the practice of my calling. With loyalty will I endeavor to aid the physician in his work and devote myself to the welfare of those committed to my care." (4) 

   The Pledge was written 128 years ago; the changes and challenges in nursing over these years are immeasurable.  

Professional Ethics 

Each profession has its own board with specific rules of ethical standards and principles; these standards and principles include honesty, respect, adherence to the law, avoidance of harm, integrity, and accountability. The specifics may differ per profession, but the basics are the same.  

Nursing Ethics, Principles and Values 

Although nothing had yet been formalized, the idea of ethics in nursing began to spread during the early 1900s. The ANA developed the first Code of Ethics in 1950, and did not revise it until 2015. The principles of ethics rely on several terms, defined as follows: 

Autonomy: This can be as simple as listening to a patients' individual rights for self-determination, including informed consent and patient choices. How this is viewed depends on the situation (5). It is important to note, in cases of endangering or harming others, for example, through communicable diseases or acts of violence, people lose this basic right (5). 

Beneficence: This term refers to doing good and is part of the Nightingale Pledge and the Hippocratic Oath. Showing acts of kindness and facilitating wellbeing are great examples.  However, it is important to understand that we as nurses, may think that we know what is best for our patient, but it is never a guarantee if they will agree with us; this is referred to as paternalism (5).  

Justice: This is including the principle that covers normative aspects that are often discussed in terms of solidarity and reciprocity. Fair distribution of resources and care is an important aspect of this principle (5).  

Non-maleficence: This term almost directly translates to ‘do no harm,’ and can be part of confidentiality or other acts of care that can involve possible negligence. Additionally, it is used in end-of-life situations and decisions of care with terminally or critically ill patients (5).  

Fidelity: This is the basic principle of keeping your word, and can be included in providing safe, quality care (5). If you tell a patient you will be back to check on their pain level, and you in fact, do check back, that is fidelity – you have kept your promise.   

Veracity: This term requires that you be truthful, accurate, and loyal to not only your patients and their families, but your co-workers as well. Are we telling our patients the truth? Are we holding back information about their conditions? Things to think about include pain medication and dosages (5). Placebos are an example of veracity. 

Accountability: This is your responsibility of judgment and actions. To whom are you accountable? Examples include yourself, your family, colleagues, employer, patient, and the nursing board. We must take responsibility for our own actions (5). The following are components of accountability: 

1.  Obligation: a duty that usually comes with consequences. 
2. Willingness: accepted by choice or without reluctance. 
3. Intent: the purpose that accompanies the plan. 
4. Ownership: having power or control over something. 
5. Commitment: a feeling of being emotionally compelled (5).
   

When examining nursing ethics, one must consider that the profession has three entry levels: diploma, Associate, and Baccalaureate degrees. This can affect what each nurse learns about, including values and ethics as well their real-life application.  

Foundations of Nursing Ethics 

Nightingale was the first to teach ethics in nursing and set strict codes for those under her supervision; today, the ANA Code of Ethics serves as a concise statement of ethical obligations and duties of every person that enters into the profession.   

The first three provisions of the ANA Code of Ethics describe the most fundamental values and commitments a nurse must make. The following three include boundaries of duty and loyalty, and the last three demonstrate aspects of duties beyond individual patient encounters.   

Values are an important provision that remind us (as individuals) that we all have morals.  As young children that are developmentally progressing, we start learning or inheriting these values from our families. What happens when your personal values are different from the values of the profession? This can also be a part of spiritual, ethnic, and cultural differences (5). 

The Worldview is inclusive of ethical and moral discussions, as well as dilemmas for nurses around the world and primarily focuses on four elements: people, practice, profession, and co-workers (6). The International Council of Nurses (ICN) is more directed toward the Worldview. Not all are included in the ANA Code of Ethics. 

An interesting factor to note is that the ICN Worldview focuses on co-worker relationships: "Nurse bullying occurs in almost all care settings and units, from the patient floor to the executive suite. In fact, 60% of nurse managers, directors, and executives in one 2018 study said they experienced bullying in the workplace, and 26% considered the bullying "severe" (7). Workplace intimidation is any intimidating or disruptive behavior that interferes with effective healthcare communication and threatens patient safety; it is often categorized as horizontal or relational aggression. Improving how management addresses such issues in nursing may be critical not only for staff turnover, but for patient outcomes.   

There is some reluctance to specify the sorts of behavior that will not be tolerated, but effective anti-bullying practices must include a statement of exactly what constitutes bullying. From an ethical perspective, the acceptance of nurses who “eat their young” should no longer be tolerated.  

Application 

As patient advocates, nurses work as part of an interdisciplinary team to provide patient care. Nursing ethics have kept pace with the advancement of the profession to include a patient-centered focus rather than a physician-centered focus. Due to its main focus of providing care, nursing ethics are often different than medical ethics; and it is important for us to understand the differences.  

As we discuss application, one must take into consideration the workforce of nurses today.  In many facilities, nursing staff may encompass at least three and maybe even four generations. This also applies to our patients. Those generations are identified as follows: 

• Traditionalists or Silent Generations (1922- 1946):  

- Respect authority, are hardworking, and sacrificial for their work. 

- Many have delayed retirement (8). 

• Baby Boomers (1946- 1964): 

- Possess a belief that workers must pay their dues, are a workaholic, and typically rely on traditional learning styles (8). 

• Generation X (1965-1977): 

- Independent, a skeptic of authority, and self-reliant (8). 

• Generation Y (1978-1991): 

- Team-oriented, tech-savvy, entrepreneurial, and has a desire to receive feedback (8). 

• Generation Z (1992- 2010): 

- Tech savvy, understand the power of text and social media (8).

No matter what generation you fall into, it is important to understand different personalities and their learning styles.  

A prime example of the generational learning styles differing and potential issues that may arise is the usage of electronic health/medical records (EMR) and various other health information technologies that are often incorporated into daily nursing practice. Nurses that come from older generations may struggle with these more, as they have experienced its transition and had to adapt.   

Following, as the prevalence of social networking platforms continue to rise, it is important for nurses to understand the ethics of social media. Issues of privacy confidentiality and anonymity are ethical concerns when mixing personal and professional information on a social media platform; it is also important to note that most healthcare facilities have strict policies regarding social media. 

End-of-Life 

End-of-life issues are filled with nursing ethics and dilemmas. If the advanced directive is not clear, family issues and other complications trigger many of the ethical principles. Self – determination (the right to stop or refuse treatment) is complicated, the patient may not always have their wishes on paper, and often, families often do not want to let go. Nurses are the backbone of allowing the patient's wishes to be known. It is important that nurses know that they can request an ethics committee review for their patients if they feel their wishes are being violated.  

Additionally, physician-assisted suicide can be an extraordinarily complex issue. For both the Hippocratic Oath and the Nightingale Pledge, there are ethical issues. Currently, the following states have made physician-assisted suicide legal: California, Colorado, Hawaii, Maine, New Jersey, Oregon, Montana, The District of Columbia, and Washington (9). With the ever-expanding ability to both prolong and end life, nurses must be cognizant and prepared for all repercussions associated with life and death situations (10). 

With recent societal and technological advancements in science and medicine, choices involving both life and death are seeming to become more complicated. As a result of this worldwide controversy in healthcare, many nurses nation-wide are now forced to deal with this ethical dilemma head on (10). There are and will be many debates as to the ethical issues involved in physician -assisted suicide and something on the forefront for nursing to consider. 

The ANA Code of Ethics 

The ANA Code of Ethics serves to guide nurses in maintaining ethical standards and in ethical decision-making. Additionally, it outlines the obligations nurses must have for their patients and the nursing profession. The provisions focus on the following as stated by Lockwood (11):  

1. Respect for human dignity: The nurse must show respect for the individual and consider multiple factors (belief systems, gender/sexual identification, values, right to self-determination, and support systems) when planning and providing care. The nurse ensures patients are fully informed and prepared to make decisions about their healthcare and to carry out advance healthcare planning.
2. Commitment to patients: The nurse must always remember that the primary responsibility is to the patient and help resolve conflicts between the patient and others and avoid conflicts of interest or breach of professional boundaries.
3. Protection of patients’ rights: The nurse must be aware of legal and moral responsibilities related to the patients’ rights to privacy and confidentiality (as outlined by HIPAA regulations) and research participation. 
4. Accountability: The nurse bears primary responsibility for the care of the patient and must practice according to the Code of Ethics and the state nurse practice act and any regulations or standards of care that apply to nursing and healthcare.
5. Professional growth: The nurse must strive always to promote health, safety and wellbeing of self and others. The nurse must, in all circumstances, maintain personal integrity and report violations of moral standards. The nurse has a right to refuse to participate in actions or decisions that are morally objectionable but cannot do so if this refusal is based on personal biases against others rather than legitimate moral concerns.
6. Improvement of healthcare environment: The nurse must recognize that some virtues are expected of nurses, including those associated with wisdom, honesty, and caring for others, and that the nurse has ethical obligations toward others. The nurse is also responsible for creating and sustaining a moral working environment. 
7. Advancement of the profession: The nurse must contribute to the profession by practicing within accepted standards, engaging in scholarly activities, and carrying out or applying research while ensuring the rights of the patients are protected.
8. Health promotion efforts: The nurse recognizes that health is a universal right for all individuals and collaborates with others to improve general health and reduce disparities. The nurse remains sensitive to cultural diversity and acts against human rights violations, such as genocide, and other situations that may endanger human rights and access to care.
9. Participation in goals of the profession: The nurse must promote and share the values of the profession and take action to ensure that social justice is central to the profession of nursing and healthcare.

Conclusion 

In conclusion, nurses face ethical dilemmas in practice almost every day, which is why it is so valuable for nurses to understand the philosophy of nursing ethics and its application in practice.  

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